1. INTRODUCTION
The carnation plant (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) belongs to
the Caryophyllaceae family and is among the most widely cultivated cut flowers
worldwide. Half-hardy herbaceous perennials, carnation plants grow to a height
of 1.0 to 1.5 meters. Another significant cut flower in several countries is
the carnation, which is cultivated in different houses. The Caryophyllaceae
family comprises over 80 genera and 3,000 species, which are mainly found in
the Holarctic (i.e., temperate to arctic regions of North America and Eurasia)
(Harbaugh et al., 2010). Commonly referred to as carnations or pinks,
Dianthus includes over 300 species recorded (Galbally & Galbally, 1997;
Jurgens et al., 2003). Carnation flowers are utilized for landscape
borders, bedding, and pot planting flowers. Flowers are additionally beautiful
cut flowers. France, Holland, Italy, Colombia, Kenya, Sri Lanka, the Canary
Islands, the United States, and Germany are the leading countries that
cultivate carnations. However, the countries that import the most carnations
include France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Israel, Italy, Spain,
Peru, Greece, Mexico, and Ecuador. The vase quality and varied color of the
petals make this crop highly profitable and in high demand internationally.
This genus is significant due to its pharmacological and aromatic properties
and is characterized by polymorphism in morphology, genetics, and hybridization
(Hammett & McGeorge, 2002; Lee et al., 2005; Yousef et al., 2024).
Light is a critical environmental factor affecting plant growth
and physiology, particularly influencing photosynthesis, stomatal development,
and leaf morphology. Red and blue light are the two most effective bands for
photosynthesis in plants among the several types of light (Hogewoning et
al., 2010). By changing the palisade and spongy mesophyll, the two lights
have an impact on photosynthesis (Zheng & Van Labeke, 2017). The blue light
enhanced stomatal conductance and photosynthetic efficiency, reduced leaf
elongation, and stimulated the growth of chloroplasts and leaf tissue
structure. Extended exposure to red light resulted in loosely arranged leaf
palisade tissues, thinner grana lamellae, and shorter starch grains. It also
prevented net photosynthesis. (Li
et al., 2021; Miao et al., 2019). Stomatal density and index tend to
increase with rising light intensity (Volenikova & Ticha, 2001; Omar & Mohammed, 2023). Additionally, photoperiod has a
significant effect on the stomatal density of plants (Casson & Gray, 2008).
AL-Mizory and Hammo (2024) observed that the maximum number of
leaves per plant and leaf area were recorded under 14-hour incandescent
lighting, while Ouzounis et al. (2014) found that red and blue LED
combinations increased leaf area in chrysanthemums. Supplementary lighting is
the sole effective method for significantly enhancing the daily light integral
(DLI) in such environments (Currey et al., 2013). It has also been used
to enhance plant growth and development (Wallace and Both, 2016). The morphology and physiology expressions vary in
the light spectrum (Haliapas et al., 2008; Ma et al., 2001). Changes in the light can affect the leaf
structure, palisade mesophyll cell thickness, and epidermis (Hogewoning et al., 2010; Macedo et
al., 2011).
Stomatal characteristics such as density, size, and aperture are
influenced not only by light quality and intensity but also by plant species
and cultivar-specific genetic factors (Haryanti, 2010; Stefanova et al.,
2024; Tambaru, 2013). Sena et al. (2024) observed that the light quality
(spectral arrangement) and quantity (photoperiod and intensity) influence plant
growth and metabolism, and also interact with several factors, including
environmental parameters, in defining the plant behavior. The Light Emitting
Diode (LED) lights are extensively utilized in the cultivation of several plant
species, especially horticultural plants, due to their lower power consumption
and higher luminous efficiency compared to conventional fluorescent lights.
The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of
different light sources and duration of exposure on the stomatal properties,
including density, size, and aperture, of two different carnations (Dianthus
caryophyllus L.) cultivars. The study specifically aims to
comprehend how various light treatments influence the morphology and activity
of stomata.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted in the greenhouse of the Horticulture
Department nursery at the College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences,
University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. The lighting treatments began in
September and continued for three months. A PolyVinyl Chloride (PVC) frame was
installed, divided into four sections using thick black cloth to prevent light
contamination between treatments. Four supplementary lighting treatments were
applied within the greenhouse as follows:
1. LED mixed light (blue, green, red) for 14 hours per day.
2. LED mixed light (blue, green, red) for 18 hours per day.
3. Incandescent light for 14 hours per day.
4. Incandescent light for 18 hours per day.
5. Natural light (control) under ambient light conditions.
Each lighting treatment was controlled by an automated electric
timer, with lights turned on at 6:00 PM daily and maintained for the specified
duration. Two carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) cultivars were used:
• Moonlight (white flowers)
• Ormea (red flowers)
Data
Were Recorded on the Following Parameters:
The Olympus microscope was used with a magnification of (10x) for
stomatal density, stomatal Index, and stomatal frequency, and (40x) for
stomatal sizes and types, subsequently. The microscope was equipped with an
ocular and an object micrometer that had been standardised. Microscope slides
of stomata were made using the replicate method. A Dino Capture 2.0 camera was
used to take the photos of stomata under microscope observation. The sizes of
stomata were categorized into length and width. The stomatal observation was
from the upper and lower surfaces of the epidermis.
Stomatal Measurements:
Stomatal area (μm2), Stomatal size (μm),
Stomatal length (μm), Stomatal width, pore area (μm2)
(aperture), pore size (μm), pore length (μm), and pore width
(μm). Measured according to the (ImageJ 1.52a) software (Fig. 1) (Edo &
Al-Bamarny, 2020).
·
Stomatal Density (mm2) = _files/image001.png)
·
Stomatal frequency (mm2) =
_files/image002.png)
·
Stomatal Index % = _files/image003.png)
Where: Area _files/image004.png)
Field of view = 0.5 mm2
The stomatal
density of the studied plant was evaluated by generating a nail polish leaf
impression Xu and Zhou (2008) on a slide. Observation was done using a light
microscope at a 40X objective lens. The area of the field of view was divided
by the average number of stomata in a field of view to obtain the stomatal
density (mm2).
•Morphological traits: Number of leaves per plant, Leaf length (cm),
Leaf area (cm²).
•Stomatal characteristics: Stomatal density (mm²), Stomatal
number, Stomatal frequency (mm²), Stomatal index (%), Stomatal
area (μm²), Stomatal size (μm), Stomatal length (μm), Stomatal
width (μm), Pore area (μm²), Pore size
(μm), Pore length (μm), and Pore width (μm).
Statistical
analysis:
The experiment was conducted using a Randomised Complete Block
Design (RCBD) with two factors. Each treatment consisted of three replicates,
with four plants in each replication. Collected data were subjected to analysis
of variance (ANOVA), and the mean values were assessed by Duncan Test at P
≤ 0.05 using the program (SAS).
3. RESULTS
Effects
of Supplementary Lighting on Leaf Morphological Characteristics in Two
Carnation Cultivars:
Variations between the two carnation cultivars led to an increase
in the number of leaves per plant, leaf length, and overall leaf area of the
plant (Table 1). The Moonlight cultivar exhibited a significantly higher
average number of leaves per plant (40.481) and greater leaf area (24.913 cm²)
compared to the Ormea cultivar (34.658 leaves and 21.248 cm², respectively).
Conversely, the Ormea cultivar had significantly longer leaves, averaging
12.261 cm, compared to 11.317 cm in the Moonlight cultivar.
The maximum leaf number, leaf length, and leaf area per plant
were recorded under 14h incandescent (42.872 leaves/plant, 13.050 cm, and
25.801cm2), respectively. The increases were significantly compared with all
treatments and followed by 14h LED-mix (39.37 leaves/plant, 12.020 cm, and
24.218 cm2), respectively. They also increase significantly compared with each
other and with the control, 18-hour incandescent, and 18-hour LED-mix
conditions. The minimum number of leaves and leaf length were recorded at
34.417 leaves/plant and 10.983 cm under natural light. In the same Table, the
leaf area under 18h LED-mix light was recorded at (21.036 cm2), which was the minimum leaf area recorded.
The interaction between cultivar and light treatment showed that
the highest number of leaves, leaf length, and leaf area were achieved when the
Moonlight cultivar was exposed to supplementary lighting (14 hours of
incandescent light). Specifically, the Moonlight cultivar under 14 hours of
incandescent light produced the most significant number of leaves per plant
(48.244 leaves) and the largest leaf area (29.188 cm²), with these results
being significantly higher than all other treatments. Additionally, the Ormea
cultivar exhibited the longest leaves (12.336 cm) when exposed to 14 hours of
incandescent light, and this increase in leaf length was significantly greater
than that observed in all other treatments.
4. DISCUSSION
In this study, the growth of carnation cultivars under
incandescent and mixed LED lighting conditions led to the greatest leaf
parameter relative to the other light treatments (Table1). Similar variation in carnations was also
observed by Patil (2001), and Shiragur (2002). These variations might be due to
the increased the number of leaves and leaf length, which in turn helped in
maintaining a higher leaf area, which ultimately might have increased the dry
matter production per plant in such superior genotypes (Gurav et al.,
2004). in Carnation. Also, the
growth of carnation cultivars under incandescent and mixed LED lighting
conditions led to the greatest stomatal density relative to the other light
treatments (Tables 2 and 3). This finding aligns with previous research
indicating that broad-spectrum light, such as white LEDs, can increase stomatal
density, stomatal frequency, and stomatal index (Seif et al., 2021; Do
Nascimento Vieira et al., 2015). Additionally, studies have shown that
plants exposed to broad light spectra generally develop higher stomatal density
than those exposed to monochromatic light spectra (Lee et al., 2007;
Savvides et al., 2012). The variation in stomatal density among
cultivars primarily results from their adaptation to environmental conditions
(Xu and Zhou, 2008). In our current study, we observed that species exposed to
supplementary light exhibited higher stomatal density, reflecting their
adaptation to increased light availability (natural light), In contrast,
species adapted to lower light intensities displayed reduced stomatal density.
Multiple studies have demonstrated positive correlations between light
intensity, stomatal conductance, and photosynthetic performance (Fanourakis et
al., 2019; Sakhonwasee et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2020).
Stomatal influenced by many factors like environmental variables,
vapor pressure deficit, is also regulated by light intensity. Stomatal
morphology depends on the lighting environment (Ghorbanzadeh et al.,
2021; Seif et al., 2021). Higher light intensity enhances both stomatal
size and pore dimensions. As shown in Table 4, the overall pore area
significantly increased with rising growth light intensity. This increase was
primarily due to larger individual pore areas per stomatal density remaining relatively
unchanged with supplementary lighting during growth (Tables 4 and 5). The
expansion in pore size per stoma was at least partly attributable to the larger
stomatal size (Tables 4 and 5), since larger stomata tend to have bigger pores
(Fanourakis et al., 2014). Additionally, previous studies have also
observed an increase in stomatal size with higher irradiance in other plant
species (Bell & James, 2000; Lawson, & Matthews (2020). Stomata, the pores on the plant’s
epidermis, are key innovations of land plants (Bergmann &Vatén 2012; Hetherington
& Woodward 2003;). Through regulating their aperture and number, higher
plants gain control over carbon uptake and water usage, allowing adaptation to
diverse climates and habitats. Drake et al., (2013) demonstrated that
leaves with smaller size and a higher density of stomata enhance gas exchange
relative to water use, thereby supporting increased photosynthesis. Similarly,
Silva et al., (2014) noted that an increase in stomatal number coupled
with reduced stomatal size facilitates plant adaptation to arid environments.
Drake et al., (2013) and Silva et al., (2014) conducted research
that aligned in emphasizing the significance of smaller leaf size and a greater
number of stomata for enhanced photosynthesis and transpiration. Haryanti
(2010) mentioned that the number of stomata could affect the rate of
transpiration in the leaves. In addition, Izza and Laily (2015) noted that the
number of stomata is closely linked to transpiration activity, as the majority
of transpiration occurs through stomata.
CONCLUSION
This study demonstrates that both light source type and exposure
duration significantly influence stomatal features in two cultivars of
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Specifically, incandescent
lighting generally promotes favourable stomatal development characterized by
optimal density and size compared to LED mixed light. Extended exposure
durations, however, induced notable alterations in stomatal morphology and
affected negative, which may impact gas exchange efficiency. Additionally, the two
cultivars responded distinctly to these environmental factors. These findings
suggest that optimizing incandescent lighting regimes and exposure durations
can enhance stomatal functioning in carnation cultivation.
Acknowledgements:
This research was conducted in the Department of Horticulture at
the College of Agriculture and Engineering Sciences, University of Duhok. I
sincerely thank everyone who provided guidance and support throughout this
study.
Conflicts
of Interest:
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Ethical Approval:
This study was conducted in a plant, as it did
not involve any experiments or interventions on humans or animals.
Contributions
of Authors:
L.S.M.A: Sample collection, Data collection, Write the manuscript. Statistical
analysis, read and revise the manuscript
E. N. Y: labour work, leaf anatomy, and read the manuscript
S. A: State key laboratory of tree genetics and breeding.
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