Prevalence of Cryptosporidiosis and It’s Associated Risk Factors Among Human Population in Zakho District, Duhok Province, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25271/sjuoz.2022.10.4.970Keywords:
prevalence, humans, Cryptosporidium, risk factors, Zakho, IraqAbstract
Cryptosporidiosis caused by species belonging to genus Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease that affects both animals and humans, making it a major public health and veterinary concern. A cross sectional study was performed during the period from August 2021 to March2022, to estimate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in the human population in order to determine the effect of associated risk factors on the rate of infection in Zakho district, Duhok. Seven hundred Fecal specimens were collected from Zakho General Hospital and two primary schools located in suburban area of Zakho city. The collected stool specimens were examined macroscopically and microscopically using a modified Ziehl–Neelsen staining method. Cryptosporidium infection was found in 87.57% (613/700) of the examined specimens. Males showed slightly higher infection rate than females (88.4% vs. 85.5%) with non-significant difference (P > 0.05). Ages group (31-41 years) showed highest rates, with significant difference (P<0.05). The highest rates of infection were reported among families with 6-10 members, people drinking unfiltered municipal tap water, suburban residents, those with close contacts with domestic animal, and illiterate people. The control of this disease necessitates the improvement of living conditions, providing potable clean water and disseminating health education programs among the community.
References
Abdel Gawad, S. S., Ismail, M. A. M., Imam, N. F. A., Eassa, A. H. A., & Abu-Sarea, E. Y. (2018). Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in Diarrheic Immunocompetent Patients in Beni-Suef, Egypt: Insight into Epidemiology and Diagnosis. The Korean Journal of Parasitology, 56(2), 113–119.
Abdulsada, K. M.(2015). Molecular and Epidemiological Study of Cryptosporidium spp. in Mid-Euphrates Area. Kufa Journal for Nursing Sciences, 5(1), 179-189.
Ahmed, H. S., Abd, A.H., Mohammed, N.Q. (2016). Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum from feces samples of human and camels by using direct Polymerase Chain Reaction assay technique. Al-Qadisiyah Journal of Veterinary Medicine Sciences, 15(2), 59–62.
Alkhanaq, M. N., & Thamer, G. (2022). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp . among Patients with Diarrhea at Wasit Province / Iraq.Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology,16(1), 771–780.
Al-Saeed, A. T., Abdo, J. M., & Gorgess, R. G. (2020). Cryptosporidiosis in Children in Duhok City / Kurdistan Region / Iraq. JPMA. The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 70(7), 1251–1255. https://doi.org/10.5455/JPMA.21273
Al-Shamiri, A. H., Al-Zubairy, A. H., & Al-Mamari, R. F. (2010). The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in children, Taiz District, Yemen. Iranian journal of parasitology, 5(2), 26
Al-Warid, H. S., Al-Saqur, I. M., & Mahmood, S. H. (2012). Occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. among people live in North of Baghdad. European Journal of Scientific Research, 78(4), 539-545.
AL-Yasary, J. T. O., & Faraj, A. A. (2021). Comparison Study about Selected Human Infection of Zoonotic Cryptosporidiosis by Conventional Diagnostic Methods in Karbala Province, Iraq. The Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 45(1), 51–55. https://doi.org/10.30539/ijvm.v45i1.1042
Aniesona, A. T., & Bamaiyi, P. H. (2014). Retrospective study of cryptosporidiosis among diarrhoeic children in the arid region of north-eastern Nigeria. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61(6), 420–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12088
Azeez, S. S., & Alsakee, H. M. (2017). Cryptosporidium spp . and rotavirus gastroenteritis and change of incidence after rotavirus vaccination among children in Raparin Pediatrics Hospital , Erbil , Iraq. Medical Journal of Indonesia, 26(3), 190–197.
Becker, D. J., Oloya, J., & Ezeamama, A. E. (2015). Household socioeconomic and demographic correlates of Cryptosporidium seropositivity in the United States. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 9(9), e0004080.
Bodager, J. R., Parsons, M. B., Wright, P. C., Rasambainarivo, F., Roellig, D., Xiao, L., & Gillespie, T. R. (2015). Complex epidemiology and zoonotic potential for Cryptosporidium suis in rural Madagascar. Veterinary Parasitology, 207(1–2), 140–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.11.013
Carvalho-Almeida, T. T., Pinto, P. L. S., Quadros, C. M. S., Torres, D. M. A. G. V, Kanamura, H. Y., & Casimiro, A. M. (2006). Detection of Cryptosporidium sp. in non diarrheal faeces from children, in a day care center in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo, 48(1), 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0036-46652006000100006
Clarke, J. J. (1895). Memoirs: A Study of Coccidia met with in Mice. Journal of Cell Science, 2(147), 277-283.
Dabas, A., Shah, D., Bhatnagar, S., & Lodha, R. (2017). Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in pediatric diarrheal illnesses. Indian pediatrics, 54(4), 299-309.
Daniels, M. E., Shrivastava, A., Smith, W. A., Sahu, P., Odagiri, M., Misra, P. R., Panigrahi, P., Suar, M., Clasen, T., & Jenkins, M. W. (2015). Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Humans, Domestic Animals, and Village Water Sources in Rural India. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 93(3), 596–600. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0111
Elshahawy, I., & AbouElenien, F. (2019). Seroprevalence of Cryptosporidium and risks of cryptosporidiosis in residents of Sothern Egypt: A cross-sectional study. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 12(5), 232–238. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-7645.259244
Fayer, R., Santín, M., & Macarisin, D. (2010). Cryptosporidium ubiquitum n. sp. in animals and humans. Veterinary Parasitology, 172(1–2), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.04.028
Feng, Y., Ryan, U. M., & Xiao, L. (2018). Genetic diversity and population structure of Cryptosporidium. Trends in parasitology, 34(11), 997-1011.
Firoozi, Z., Sazmand, A., Zahedi, A., Astani, A., Bafghi, A. F., Salmi, N. K., Ebrahimi, B., Tafti, A. D., & Ryan, U. (2019). Prevalence and genotyping identification of Cryptosporidium in adult ruminants in central Iran. Parasites & Vectors, 12(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3759-2
Gerace, E., Presti, V. D. M. L., & Biondo, C. (2019). Cryptosporidium infection: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and differential diagnosis. European Journal of Microbiology and Immunology, 9(4), 119-123.
Ghazy, A., Abdel-Shafy, S., & Shaapan, R. (2015). Cryptosporidiosis in Animals and Man: 1. Taxonomic Classification, Life Cycle, Epidemiology and Zoonotic Importance. Asian Journal of Epidemiology, 8(3), 48–63. https://doi.org/10.3923/aje.2015.48.63
Ghoshal, U., Jain, V., Dey, A., & Ranjan, P. (2018). Evaluation of enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for stool antigen detection for the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis among HIV negative immunocompromised patients in a tertiary care hospital of northern India. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 11(1), 115–119.
Innes, E. A., Chalmers, R. M., Wells, B., & Pawlowic, M. C. (2020). A One Health Approach to Tackle Cryptosporidiosis. Trends in Parasitology, 36(3), 290–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2019.12.016
Iqbal, J., Khalid, N., & Hira, P. R. (2011). Cryptosporidiosis in Kuwaiti children: association of clinical characteristics with Cryptosporidium species and subtypes. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 60(5), 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.028001-0
John DT, Petri W. (2006). Medical parasitology. In: John DT, Petri W, eds. A Book. 9th ed.USA: Elsevier Inc.
Kalantari, N., Ghaffari, S., & Bayani, M. (2018). Cryptosporidium spp. infection in Iranian children and immunosuppressive patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Caspian Journal of Internal Medicine, 9(2), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.22088/cjim.9.2.106
Khan, A., Shams, S., Khan, S., Khan, M. I., Khan, S., & Ali, A. (2019). Evaluation of prevalence and risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium infection in rural population of district Buner, Pakistan. PloS One, 14(1), e0209188.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209188
Khoshnaw, K.H.S., Majeed, P.D., Hawezy, A.A. (2017). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp . among hospitalized children with diarrhea using ELISA and conventional microscopic techniques , in Erbil province. Polytech. J. 1–11.
Klein, S. L., & Flanagan, K. L. (2016). Sex differences in immune responses. Nature Publishing Group, 371(6527), 347-348. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri.2016.90
Kotloff, K. L., Nataro, J. P., Blackwelder, W. C., Nasrin, D., Farag, T. H., Panchalingam, S., Wu, Y., Sow, S. O., Sur, D., & Breiman, R. F. (2013). Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study. The Lancet, 382(9888), 209–222.
Koyee, Q. M., & Faraj, A. M. (2015). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. with other intestinal microorganisms among regular visitors of Raparin Pediatric Hospital in Erbil City-Kurdistan region, Iraq. Zanco Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 27(4), 57-64.
Krumkamp, R., Aldrich, C., Maiga-Ascofare, O., Mbwana, J., Rakotozandrindrainy, N., Borrmann, S. & Eibach, D. (2021). Transmission of Cryptosporidium species among human and animal local contact networks in sub-saharan Africa: a multicountry study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(8), 1358-1366.
Mahdi, N. K., Al-Sadoon, I. A., & Mohamed, A. T. (1996). First report of cryptosporidiosis among Iraqi children. In Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 2(1), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.26719/1996.2.1.115
Medema, G. J., & Schijven, J. F. (2001). Modelling the sewage discharge and dispersion of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water. Water Research, 35(18), 4307–4316. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00161-0
Merdaw, M. A., Al-Zubaidi, M. T. S., Hanna, D. B., Khalaf, I. A., Jassim, H. S. (2018). Genotyping of Cryptosporidium Spp . Isolated from Human and Cattle in Baghdad Province , Iraq. Indian Journal of Natural Sciences, 9(51), 15925–15932.
Mohammad, F. I. (2018). Detecting of virulence factors COWP gene and CP15 gene for Cryptosporidium parvum by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Al-Qadisiyah Journal Of Pure Science, 23(2), 39-47. https://doi.org/10.29350/jops.2018.23.2.736
Mor, S. M., & Tzipori, S. (2008). Cryptosporidiosis in children in Sub-Saharan Africa: a lingering challenge. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 47(7), 915–921.
Nakibirango, J., Mugenyi, V., Nsaba, D., Nsimemukama, A., Rugera, S. P., & Okongo, B. (2019). Prevalence of cryptosporidiosis and hygiene practices among HIV/AIDS patients in southwest Uganda. HIV/AIDS - Research and Palliative Care, 11, 141–145. https://doi.org/10.2147/HIV.S206195
Pumipuntu, N., & Piratae, S. (2018). Cryptosporidiosis: A zoonotic disease concern. Veterinary World, 11(5), 681–686. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2018.681-686
Ryan, U., Fayer, R., & Xiao, L. (2014). Cryptosporidium species in humans and animals: current understanding and research needs. Parasitology, 141(13), 1667–1685. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182014001085
Ryan, U., & Hijjawi, N. (2015). New developments in Cryptosporidium research. International Journal for Parasitology, 45(6), 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2015.01.009
Ryan, U. M., Feng, Y., Fayer, R., & Xiao, L. (2021). Taxonomy and molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and Giardia–a 50 year perspective (1971–2021). International Journal for Parasitology, 51(13-14), 1099-1119.
Salim, M. (2018). Epidemiological study on Cryptosporidium among children in Basra Province-Iraq. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1032(1), 012072. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1032/1/012072
Salim, A. R., & Al-Aboody, B. A. (2019). Molecular Detection and Prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum, Among Patients with Diarrhea at Al-Rifai City/Thi-Qar Province. Iraqi Journal of Biotechnology, 18(2).
Salman, Y. J., Sadek, W. S., & Rasheed, Z. K. (2015). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum among Iraqi displaced people in Kirkuk city using direct microscopy, flotation technique and ELISA-copro antigen test. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci, 4(11), 559–572.
Sayal, R. A. (2019). Epidemiological Study of Cryptosporidium Infection in Al-Najaf City. Int J Pharm Qual Assur, 10(1), 128–131. https://doi.org/10.25258/ijpqa.10.1.20
Smith, H. V, Cacciò, S. M., Cook, N., Nichols, R. A. B., & Tait, A. (2007). Cryptosporidium and Giardia as foodborne zoonoses. Veterinary Parasitology, 149(1–2), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.07.015
Thomson, S., Hamilton, C. A., Hope, J. C., Katzer, F., Mabbott, N. A., Morrison, L. J., & Innes, E. A. (2017). Bovine cryptosporidiosis: impact, host-parasite interaction and control strategies. Veterinary Research, 48(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-017-0447-0
Tombang, A. N., Ambe, N. F., Bobga, T. P., Nkfusai, C. N., Collins, N. M., Ngwa, S. B., Diengou, N. H., & Cumber, S. N. (2019). Prevalence and risk factors associated with cryptosporidiosis among children within the ages 0 – 5 years attending the Limbe regional hospital , southwest region , Cameroon. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1-10.
Tyzzer, E. E. (1907). A sporozoan found in the peptic glands of the common mouse. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 5(1), 12-13.
Yang, Y., Zhou, Y., Xiao, P., Shi, Y., Chen, Y., Liang, S., & Yihuo, W. (2017). Prevalence of and risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium infection in an underdeveloped rural community of southwest China. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 6(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-016-0223-9
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Hamdea Ismail Ahmed, Wijdan Mohammed Salih Mero, Ahmed Basheer Mohameed
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License [CC BY-NC-SA 4.0] that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work, with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online.
